Northland Center in Detroit, Michigan, ca. 1954

As originally built, Northland was an open air pedestrian mall embellished with gardens and sophisticated modern sculpture. It opened in 1954 to much fanfare, and provided Victor Gruen with national prominence. Northland was enclosed in the 1970s. By then Gruen had soured on the mall concept—the sprawl of tacky shops, parking lots, and gas stations that soon surrounded most malls went against his original vision. By 2015 Northland was closed. When it opened, Northland had a larger consumer base and less competition. But as the years went by Northland failed to adjust to the changing needs and expectations of consumers and was slowly replaced by other shopping alternatives.